When a mother's experience of sexual abuse influences that of her child

Several studies suggest that mothers with a history of childhood sexual abuse may experience lasting effects in adulthood that, inadvertently, impact their child. These effects are associated with an increased risk that their child will become a victim of sexual abuse1.

Intergenerational cycles of childhood sexual abuse refer to the increased risk of a child being a victim of sexual abuse if their mother also experienced it before the age of 181. The term "intergenerational trauma," which includes childhood sexual abuse, is used considering the often traumatic nature of sexual abuse. The concept of a "cycle" refers to the notion that the trauma and its consequences can be transmitted from parent to child. However, in this article, we do not refer to situations where mothers are the perpetrators of their child's sexual abuse.

According to studies, between one and three out of ten minors are victims of sexual abuse2. This high proportion highlights the importance of addressing this phenomenon. Indeed, childhood sexual abuse is associated with short and long-term consequences. However, it is important to note that this list is not exhaustive and provides several examples of consequences that manifest as1^,2:

• Relationship difficulties: trust issues, conflicts, feelings of stigma or isolation. In intimate relationships, there may be lower relationship satisfaction, avoidance, or overinvestment in sexuality, as well as increased separation or breakups1^,2^,3. 
• Psychological difficulties: psychological distress, depressive and mood disorders (e.g., bipolar disorder), dissociation (involuntary separation between the person and reality, often to avoid experiencing distressing emotions associated with traumatic events), etc1.
• Neurophysiological sequelae: excessive or abnormally low levels of stress hormone -  cortisol, alteration of certain brain structures. These sequelae can lead to psychological, relational, and behavioral difficulties1^,4.

Why should we be interested in intergenerational cycles?

The issue of intergenerational cycles of childhood sexual abuse is significant. One-third to three-quarters of mothers of sexually abused children report having been victims of this trauma themselves1, which is significantly higher than population rates of childhood sexual abuse.

Complex trauma at the heart of intergenerational cycles of childhood sexual assault

Many survivors of childhood sexual abuse experience what is known as complex trauma, which is characterized by emotional (e.g., difficulty calming oneself), identity (e.g., feeling worthless or like a failure), and relational (e.g., avoiding intimate relationships) difficulties5. Complex trauma occurs:

• Following interpersonal traumatic events;
• Often involving a trusted adult;
• Repeatedly and during a critical developmental period such as childhood or adolescence1^,5. 

The symptoms of complex trauma exhibited by some survivors can also impact their parenting abilitiess4^,6. In fact, mothers act to the best of their abilities and with the best intentions for their child's well-being. However, mental health issues, substance use, and/or relationship problems (such as marital conflicts, attachment difficulties, and lack of social support) are factors that increase the risk of intergenerational continuity of childhood sexual abuse4. 

Furthermore, these mothers may remain in risky environments or may not be aware of certain risks their children are exposed to1. Also, mothers who are survivors report feeling less confident in their parenting role1.They may face challenges in their relationship with their child or intimate partner, as well as difficulties in communication related to sexuality1^,2^,3^,4^,5^,6^,7. Many are deprived of an optimal parenting experience, as they are more likely to encounter obstacles than mothers who have not experienced sexual abuse. Consequently, children of mothers who are survivors are at risk of developing adaptation difficulties, physical and mental health problems, and problems with emotion regulation1. As a result, these children may exhibit characteristics that make them prime targets for sexual predators4. Notably, they are more socially isolated. Also, these children are at risk of experiencing relational deficits, manifested through attachment problems, or engaging in risky sexual behaviors4. This highlights the importance of being sensitive to the reality of mothers who are survivors and providing them with the necessary resources to become the best version of themselves for their children.

Although the mother's role has been discussed in terms of intergenerational trauma, it is important to avoid blaming the mother, and to consider the father's role in the intergenerational continuity of childhood sexual abuse8. The only person responsible for the sexual abuse of a child is and will always be the perpetrator2. It is important to understand that the trauma experienced by the mother following sexual abuse can lead to difficulties. This inadvertently places her at risk of living in a family environment conducive to violence, thereby increasing the likelihood that her child will experience some form of sexual victimization2. 

Therefore, it is important to mobilize efforts to break the intergenerational cycles of childhood sexual abuse. It would be beneficial to intervene early with mothers and children who experienced sexual abuse6. Additionally, individuals in the child's environment can reduce the risk of intergenerational trauma by:

As a mother who is a survivor:

• Consult support resources to provide a protective environment for your child and reduce the risk of them becoming a victim of sexual abuse. Trauma is intergenerational, but so is healing.

As a member of the child's environment:

• Recognizing the active role that you can play in preventing sexual abuse (for example, being available, empathetic, and attentive to the child);
• Educate your child so that they can discern a context of sexual abuse. For example, explain to them that they can refuse certain contacts with the adults around them. You can also teach your child, in a way that's adapted to their psychosexual development, what sexual abuse is, and what to do if they are ever a victim (see the resources below for more information);
• Help your child develop assertiveness skills. Due to their incomplete psychosexual development, they are at risk of experiencing a situation of sexual violence. By respecting the boundaries that your child establishes regarding their body (e.g., "I don't want to give you a kiss"), you will expose them to examples of consent.

As a member of the community:

• Find out more about the problem of intergenerational continuity of childhood sexual abuse, get involved with organizations working to prevent sexual abuse, or share this article with your friends and family! If you think you've witnessed a situation of childhood sexual abuse, don't hesitate to contact the Director of Youth Protection with your questions.
• Learn about trauma-sensitive approaches and practices, for a society that contributes to the prevention of trauma and revictimization. 

For the perpetrator: 

• Perpetrators also have a responsibility to inform themselves and use the various prevention and awareness resources available to try to break the cycle.

Talking to children about sexual abuse can be a complex subject. Fortunately, there are a number of resources available to help parents and children affected directly or indirectly by sexual abuse. Here is a non-exhaustive list:

• Marie-Vincent, located in Montreal, this organization supports children and teenagers, as well as their families, by offering prevention and follow-up services under the same roof.
• Info-social (811) is a confidential telephone consultation service that lets you talk to a professional about a problematic situation.
• Tel-jeunes  is a service offered by phone, text or chat that allows young people to consult and confide in a counsellor.
• LigneParents is a free professional support service available by telephone, chat and e-mail, enabling parents to gain the tools they need to feel more confident in their role and to discuss their concerns.
• Helping Survivors is an American advocacy center whose mission is to assist anyone who has been victimized by sexual assault or abuse. Their website offers information around different instances of sexual violence.

This blog article was originally written as part of the course on Sexual and Interpersonal Victimization taught by our member Marianne Girard at the Department of Sexology at UQAM in the fall of 2022. The publication of this article was made possible thanks to our partner, the Interdisciplinary Research Centre on Intimate Relationship Problems and Sexual Abuse (CRIPCAS), and the Fonds de recherche du Québec. 

• 1a1b1c1d1e1f1g1h1i1j1k1lBaril, K., & Tourigny, M. (2015). Le cycle intergénérationnel de la victimisation sexuelle dans l'enfance : Modèle explicatif basé sur la théorie du trauma. Carnet de notes sur les maltraitances infantiles, 4(1), 28–63. https://doi.org/10.3917/cnmi.151.0028
• 2a2b2c2d2e2fLangevin, R., Hébert, M., & Kern, A. (2022). Maternal history of child sexual abuse and maladaptive outcomes in sexually abused children: The role of maternal mental health. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(15–16), 14485–14506. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211013963
• 3a3bGewirtz-Meydan, A., & Lassri, D. (2023). Sex in the shadow of child sexual abuse: The development and psychometric evaluation of the Post-Traumatic Sexuality (PT-SEX) Scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(5-6), 4714–4741. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626052211189
• 4a4b4c4d4e4fBaril, K. (2016). Le cycle intergénérationnel de la victimisation sexuelle à l’enfance : Facteurs maternels associés et profil des dyades mère-enfant impliquées [Thèse de doctorat, Université de Sherbrooke]. Savoirs UdeS. http://hdl.handle.net/11143/8921
• 5a5b5cCloitre, M. (2020). ICD-11 complex post-traumatic stress disorder: Simplifying diagnosis in trauma populations. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 216(3), 129–131. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2020.43
• 6a6b6cBerthelot, N., Langevin, R., & Hébert, M. (2012). L’association entre la victimisation sexuelle dans l’enfance de la mère et les troubles de comportement chez l’enfant victime d’agression sexuelle. Journal international de victimologie, 10(1), 8–20. https://doi.org/10.3917/cnmi.151.0028
• 7Langevin, R., Marshall, C., & Kingsland, E. (2021). Intergenerational cycles of maltreatment: A scoping review of psychosocial risk and protective factors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(4), 672-688. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019870917
• 8Borelli, L. J., Cohen, C., Pettit, C., Normandin, L., Target, M. Fonagy, P., & Ensink, K. (2019). Maternal and child sexual abuse history: An intergenerational exploration of children’s adjustment and maternal trauma-reflective functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1664–1078. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01062